Geoffrey Chaucer - The General Prologue / The Pardoner's Tale / The Miller's Tale

Q: The Pardoner’s Tale is “another example of his (the Pardoner’s) professional skill, an exemplum, a story with a moral to move and impress his hearers.” Are you ‘moved’ and ‘impressed’ by this tale? Give reasons.

The Pardoner is a representative of the Catholic Church of his time, his job was to sermonize to the people, lead them off the paths of evil and pardon them for their wrongs. Even at the time of Chaucer’s writing, Pardoners were universally disliked for being corrupt. Chaucer himself was once apprehended for attacking a Pardoner. In the Tales, even the other pilgrims do not take kindly to the Pardoner. Their attitude towards him borders on contempt. His tale is an exemplum rather than a narrative, for it contains a strong moral. It is an example of the kind of sermons that he gives to the local people to persuade them to give up their vices. His aim is to ‘move and impress’ his listeners. However, just as the pilgrims who listen to his story are not much moved nor impressed, we as the readers also find it difficult to be so. This is mainly because of Chaucer’s keen psychological characterization of the Pardoner himself.

In the prologue to his tale, the Pardoner begins with a chatty, confidential tone to expose his real aims in sermonizing. He is utterly corrupt and unashamed to confess it. His prologue is taken as an apologia, or a literary confession, but he seems not to repent but to revel in his vices. He tells the other pilgrims how he would take even the last penny off a widow, even if her children starved, so that he could have his worldly pleasures. He reaches against greed, drinking, gambling and swearing but follows none of his own advice. In the Tale, he digresses for over 200 lines in a mock sermon on the aforementioned vices, but by then he has committed most of them himself. He begins the tale drunks, swears throughout the prologue and he confesses his excessive greed for worldly pleasures.

The Pardoner says that his sermon always contains one theme and that is ‘radix malorum est cupiditas’ – meaning greed is the root of all evil. His tale of the three rioters builds on this theme. Avarice is the downfall of all three characters. By the end of the tale, the Pardoner has made a strong impact, he is undoubtedly a good preacher. His preaching works for the local people who listen to him. They are uneducated and naive. To them, the Pardoner’s tale is deeply impressive. Besides, the Pardoner uses his few phrases of Latin and his condescending and righteous manner to intimidate and condition his hearers. They buy his pardons and relics from him, giving him the coin that he is after.

This theme of the pardoner’s is one that many preachers and writers speak about. For example, George Herbert in his poem Avarice writes, “Money thou bane of bliss and source of woe”. In Chaucer’s time, money was equated with spiritual death. It was easy to play on this fear. This is one reason the Pardoner was a successful preacher. He knew how to tap into his listeners fears and offer them a solution to cleanse themselves.

The problem, however, is the Pardoner himself. By his own confession and subsequent actions, he negates his own moral. He says, “I preache nothyng but for coveitise.” Now that he has let us into his secrets, can we be expected to be impacted by his sermon? Clearly the Pardoner thinks so, which is why he tries to sell his relics to the pilgrims at the end of his tale and is insulted, much to his chagrin. Why does he try to sell his pardons after informing the pilgrims that it is all fraud? Perhaps he believes in his own skills so much that he thinks he can still fool his hearers, or perhaps he is so carried away with the telling of his moral tale that he thinks his hearers will be moved and impressed that they will buy his pardons.  Either way, he is not successful in selling his tale to the pilgrims. His hypocrisy mars the efficacy of his own tale. He is a moral paradox. His story although full of meat is paradoxically empty and hollow.

In his defense, we can call the Pardoner honest. He tells the truth and does not try to whitewash himself. Also, whatever his intentions, his sermons do influence the village dupes and make them repent and lead better lives. The fact that Chaucer mentions this is perhaps to show that even such a lowbrow hypocritical character can do some good in society.

Even so, Chaucer uses the Pardoner to expose the corruption of the orthodox church of his time. The Pardoner is a strong indictment on the systematic and entrenched church. His vices are reflective of the corruption that went on behind the façade of holiness. Here is a statement by the writer to us to be careful, exercise good judgment and not be taken in. it’s the irony in the Pardoners prologue and tale that constitutes its main interest.

In the final analysis, it is obvious the Pardoner is an excellent preacher. His exemplum and the other tricks of his trade are effective to those who do not know his intentions and are unperceptive. However it is difficult for the intelligent reader and even for the pilgrims of the Tales to take the man or his story seriously. His prologue undermines the efficacy of his tale. We are neither moved nor impressed by his tale in the manner of the Pardoner’s regular audience. He cannot sell his story to us.

Shakespearean Sonnets

Q:What is unique about Shakespeare’s sonnets is “the variety, complexity and sensitivity found therein.” Analyse some of the sonnets you have read with reference to this comment.

The Shakespearean sonnet is unique when compared to traditional sonnets. Shakespeare dealt with different themes and subjects that were unconventional at the time. A sonnet is a love poem, usually written in praise of an idolized and unattainable woman. All 365 of Petrarch’s sonnets were written in praise of a single woman, Laura and were passionate lyrics that used hyperbolic images to praise her as a model of adoration and inspiration. Petrarch did not interact with Laura, but merely viewed her from afar; and therefore his love for her is what he imagines it to be; it is based on the ideal. While following the same tradition, Shakespeare introduced new aspects to the sonnet. His sonnets are unique because he introduced ‘variety, complexity, and sensitivity’ to them.  

When speaking of the variety in Shakespeare’s sonnets we have to bear in mind that sonnets spoke only of love and themes directly related to love; they focused on only one hub. Shakespeare, on the other hand, deals with a variety of themes, some of them having nothing to do with love. He explores sex, death, dying, the ravages of time, carnal lust, platonic love, immortality, religion and the soul and develops a number of other subjects such as blame, deceit, insomnia, loneliness, etc… To illustrate this point, let us take sonnet 129. Here, Shakespeare deals with the theme of lust, engaging in it explicitly and without reservations. This was highly unconventional for his time. He speaks of how the fulfillment of lust is desired, longed for and experienced with enjoyment – but then how it leads to immediate regret and shame. The poet warns against the dangers of indulging in lust yet says that although the world knows all this about lust already, they do not know how to ‘shun the heaven that leads men to this hell’. He seems to be speaking from experience, although he tries to hide this fact.

Another poem that is unique when compared to conventional sonnets is sonnet 130. Here we have a direct parody of a Petrarchan sonnet. He makes fun of the courtly tradition of praising a woman to the skies by comparing her to hyperbolic images. Shakespeare begins by the negative line, ‘My mistress’ eyes are nothing like the sun’ and follows it with comparison after comparison that only emphasizes the negative aspects of his mistress. However, in the volta (the terminating couplet), he states that his love is true and real despite the fact that his woman is not perfect.

Sonnets such as 18 and 55 praise the fair youth of Shakespeare’s sonnets and promise immortality through verse, while the very first sonnet laments the consequences that the passing of time will have on the youth’s beauty and perfection. This reversal of roles, that is, the male poet praising not a young woman but another man, is also unique. It has led to the speculation that Shakespeare was a homosexual but there is no valid proof to substantiate this.

Complexity was a feature of Shakespearean sonnets which contain the potentially troubling depiction of human love. The speaker of the sonnets has two loves. One is a man to whom sonnets 1 – 126 are dedicated and the other is the dark lady with ‘metaphorically’ dark morals to whom sonnets 127-154 are dedicated. His relationships with these two people are obscure and troubling. He calls the youth an angel and praises him as Petrarch does Laura. The woman conversely, is ‘coloured ill’, a bad angel and a temptress. She later lures the youth away from the poet thereby leaving him in fear of losing both his loves. Sonnet 144 deals particularly with this, and is the only sonnet that explicitly refers to both the lady and the lord.

Sonnet 94 is extremely complex in its description, and contains ambiguous metaphors and references, which make it difficult to interpret. The poet speaks of ‘cold, unmoving people’ and then jumps to a description of a ‘sweet summer flower’. He ends by saying that the flower, if it festers, will smell worse than a weed. The theme is ‘optima corrupta pessima’ – the best becomes the worst when corrupted. The entire poem is a complex riddle that has continued to cause debate.

In this way, Shakespeare portrays complex issues, often in complex, ambiguous ways. The relationships he describes are complicated, but this makes it realistic. Life is complex and intricate. It is hard to find clear – cut relationships and situations. The poet has understood this and is realistic in his portrayal.

Finally, when taking sensitivity into account, we see that Shakespeare’s sonnets are deeply emotional, poignant and reflective. They are so convincing that scholars believe they are autobiographical. He writes as though he has gone through each situation and perhaps he has.

Number 30 is a good example of such a sonnet. Here the poet speaks of his youth, his old friends, some of whom have died, lost loves and mistakes made. It is full of deep emotion. All three quatrains deal with the poet’s grief. The couplet focuses on the young man and the poet indicates how much he depends on him for his emotional and spiritual sustenance. The poem expresses the poet’s discontent in life.

In 130 he describes his mistress in realistic terms and proclaims that he loves her despite her inadequacies. This is a show of honest feelings and rings true to the reader. It shows the speaker as a sensitive person.

Sonnet 73 is another that deals with the poet’s feelings on the passing of time. It expresses the speaker’s anxieties over his advancing age and his concern that the same will happen to the youth. The poem contains complex, interchangeable metaphors, and is deeply poignant. The private sentiments expressed are like a window into the poet’s soul. Few poets are so outspoken regarding their innermost feelings, but it is this that partly constitutes the uniqueness in Shakespeare’s sonnets.

To sum up, Shakespeare’s sonnets can be viewed as the prototype of a new kind of ‘modern’ love poetry. This poetry was unique in term of themes, expression and development. He encompasses several distinct points of love, life, death and time. It is no wonder than that the Shakespearean sonnet remains the epitome of the sonnet form in the English language. 


Q: How effectively does Shakespeare portray the process of ageing in the sonnets that you have studied?

One of the main themes of the sonnets that is alluded to again and again is that of the ravages of time and the effects it has on age. The narrator of the sonnets is often obsessed with this theme and tries to find various solutions to this inevitable problem. Time is portrayed as an enemy – it makes men age, beauty fade and life to end.

Shakespeare opens the sequence of sonnets by pleading with the fair youth to beget children so that he may leave his beauty to posterity, in the very first sonnet. He wants to combat the inevitable by pushing the fair lord to sire a child and thereby bequeath his perfection to them. He is pre-occupied with the problem and in Sonnet 2, he says, “When forty winters shall besiege thy brows” and goes on to detail the detrimental ramifications of the passing of time. In these early poems, his focus is on the aging of the young man and the way to achieve immortality is by having children.

From sonnet 18 onwards, however, the poet suddenly changes his stance. He turns to another solution: that of achieving immortality through verse. For the first time in the sonnets, the speaker says that the young man will be eternized through the poet’s lines:

                     “So long as men can breath or eyes can see,

                     So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.”

The author is animated and hopeful. His poetry will keep the fair youth alive in verse. However, later on, the troubles of aging return to haunt the speaker. Sonnet 30 deals with his sorrow of his past, and lamentations of the foolish mistakes of his youth. He weeps the loss of friends to death. Sonnet 73 deals entirely with aging and fading life. It has been suggested that the lines “When yellow leaves, or more, or few do hang, Upon those boughs…” is a reference to the poet’s balding state. This interpretation fits well if we take this to be autobiographical, for we know the poet was indeed balding as he aged. In this sonnet, he tries to explain to the fair youth that time will do the same to him that it has done to the poet. These references suggest that the poet was somewhat older than the young man and in a position to illustrate to him the effects of time on age. The speaker is anxious about this. He brings about is argument wit a series of metaphors. This sonnet carries the story of how the speaker comes to grips with the real finality of his age and his impermanence in time. He pleads with the young man to love that which he must soon leave ‘ere long’. It is a reasonable request. It is also poignant and deep with emotion. Age comes slowly but realization comes suddenly.

In Sonnet 73, Shakespeare uses the seasons of the year and the time of day as metaphors for his age – winter, twilight and a dying fire. He speaks of his impending death which will happen ‘by and by’. Not only does Shakespeare convince the youth, but he also convinces the reader that life is impermanent and that we will all go through this situation that he is describing.

In Sonnet 146, Shakespeare speaks of outwitting Death. He paradoxically asserts

                   “So shalt thou feed on Death, that feeds on men

                    And Death, once dead, there’s no more dying then.”

Here the poet begins to look towards a way of ensuring the immortality of the soul as death is inevitable. The poet seems to have given up his previous views, and turns to a more spiritual outlook.  

Ultimately, Shakespeare understands that he cannot stop the inevitable process of aging, and although he looks to many ways of thwarting death he realizes that this cannot be done. He accepts that his verse may overcome the ravages of time. From our contemporary vantage point, we see that the speaker’s words are correct. His lines have lived long than ‘gilded monuments’ or ‘marble’ and he has achieved immortality. Shakespeare’s portrayal of the consequences of passing time and the striving towards immortality is poignant, sincere and emotional. He lays bare his soul on this theme that we can all relate to. His honesty makes the point forceful. Shakespeare has been very effective in his portrayal of the process of ageing.

Q: “The sonnet is a courtly form and is one of the most formalistic of all renaissance poetic forms. Shakespeare uses this very public form to express private sentiments that sound not only extremely personal but also non-courtly.” Do you agree? Discuss with reference to at least three of Shakespeare's sonnets.

The sonnet, which originated in Italy and came to English writers through the works of Dante and Petrarch, was a formal and courtly poetic form that was conventionally associated with love poetry. It had certain distinctive features and was usually about the poet’s feelings towards an idolized woman. The rhyme scheme was rigid and the metre was generally iambic pentameter. Shakespeare broke the conventions associated with sonnets so much so that his sonnets have sometimes been called parodies or pastiches of the traditional Petrarchan sonnet. With mastery skill, he uses the sonnet form to speak of sentiments that seem autobiographical in their convincing portrayal of emotions. While the exploration of love is central in courtly poetry, Shakespeare goes beyond that to explore all sorts of ‘love’, even those types that were generally taboo in poetry.

Shakespeare begins the sequence of sonnets with a violation of the rules. He speaks of love and idolization which is associated with courtly forms of poetry; however the subject is not a woman. Shakespeare plays defiantly with gender roles and chooses to praise a man. He praises the perfection of a certain fair lord and elevates him above the whole world, begging him to sire children so that he may preserve his beauty through them and thereby defy the ravages of time. The poet’s obsession with the young man has often led scholars to conclude that the he was homosexual and that the poet was writing autobiographically. Whether this love is platonic or not is not known.

Throughout the sequence the poet mentions two loves in his life. One is a man to whom sonnets 1 – 126 are dedicated and the other is the dark lady with ‘metaphorically’ dark morals to whom sonnets 127-154 are dedicated.  In Sonnet 144 the poet mentions both together for the first and only time. In this sonnet, the poet shows the tension between his two loves and the relationship that they have with each other. He uses a cynical and mocking tone but this is only to disguise the uncertainty and the jealousy that he feels. Unlike courtly poetry, Shakespeare writes of reciprocal love. His loves are not objects to be admired from afar, such as Petrarch’s Laura. We feel the poet’s despair, jealousy, hopelessness and uncertainty.

Another theme common in the Shakespearean sonnets is sex, lust and the effects of indulging in this. Sonnet 129 deals explicitly with this theme. The poet speaks of longing for the fulfillment of lust and then the regret as soon as the act is over. He bemoans the ramifications that yielding to lustful temptations brings with it. The speaker uses an impersonal tone to describe the various stages one goes through in lust. He seems to rue his own lustful urges and acts. The poet engages in the topic without reservation in a way that was not typical of his time. This is definitely non-courtly and an extremely private meditation. The poet convinces us as to the wisdom of his words. He certainly knows what he is talking about. Is this imagination or experience? Either way, the words ring true.

In Sonnet 130, the poet turns Petrachan tradition upside-down as he makes fun of courtly love by parodying it. While Petrarch compares his Laura to various object to heighten her perfection, Shakespeare on the contrary tell us what his mistress is ‘not’. Her eyes are not like the sun, her lips are not red as coral, her breasts are not white but dun and so on. This is a tongue-in-cheek sonnet that ends on a serious note: she may not be all that but still he loves her truly accepting her as she is. There is no formality in his tone, no false flattery but genuine love for his mistress. This is realistic love and poses the question of whether it is not better to speak plainly than flatter your lover with false words.

The poet also freely discusses his private feelings regarding old age, his past, his confusions, mistakes, regrets and so on. Sonnet 30 “When to the sessions of sweet, silent thought” laments his youthful mistakes and the time gone by, the loss of old friends to death and former loves that are now over. He then remembers his fair friend and his sorrows are lifted, showing a pathetic dependence upon him for the sustenance of his joy and vitality. This is an extremely personal poem and deals with aspects of life that anyone can relate to.

In the final analysis, Shakespeare used the formal sonnet to speak of intimate and private subjects, making his poetry a prototype of a new kind of ‘modern’ love poetry. Comparing his work to that of poets such as Pope, Dryden, Milton, Petrarch or Spenser we see why Shakespeare is considered a master of the depiction of human feelings. He speaks openly on topics that most other writers would avoid. He bends and breaks rules where he feels necessary, proving that he remains not a slave to form but a master in the portrayal of human nature and emotion.

Alexander Pope - The Epistle to Doctor Arbuthnot / The Rape of the Lock

Q: "Pope's works are not merely satirical. They are a part of a social  commentary that attempts to shape the mores of the middle classes of the period." Discuss with reference to texts that you are familiar with.

The Augustan Age saw an explosive rise in literary production, and due to the influence of Enlightenment thought, the works often focused on social and political matters. Some works commented on general flaws of the human condition while others critiqued certain individuals and specific policies. Needless to say, the mode of satire was one of the most popular literary modes, of which Alexander Pope was a master. His satire showcased his devastating wit and he used it to comment on, criticize and expose the vices and follies of the society of his time. While his works are satirical, they also offer a corrective vision.

The Epistle to Doctor Arbuthnot is a harsh, attacking satire that explains why Pope writes satires. Here he defends his attacks with a work that is perhaps his greatest satire. The Epistle shares a theme common to satirists since the days of Horace and Juvenal, that is, the struggle that 'good' writers have to maintain their standard in a world full of 'bad' writers. Pope attacks bad writers, their corrupt patrons and sycophants. This brings us to the question, what benefit is there in this acerbic retaliation on writers with little skill? Pope had a personal reason in that he was often humiliated and attacked by many writers (Lord Hervey wrote that he was a 'wretched little carcass' by pointing out his bodily deformities). But, according to Pope, there is a nobler cause in condemning bad writers. Pope believes that bad writing reflects bad thinking and this in turn reflects bad living.

 From the beginning of the poem, Pope initiates a running cluster of images based on animals, insects, dirt and disease. He mentions Midas’s ass-ears, compares Codrus to a spider enthroned in the centre of his flimsy lines, mentions the slaver of ‘mad creatures’, the impurities found in amber and so on, culminating in a devastating attack on Sporus (a thinly veiled disguise for John Hervey). Pope calls him, “This painted Child of Dirt that stinks and stings” comparing him to a cherub-faces reptile, evoking Satan.

All this imagery is to show that society is full of such dirt and disease, which he calls the Plague. Sporus is a carrier of disease and he infects physically and morally. His character is a brilliant, concise metaphor to depict the evils of England of the mid eighteenth century – corrupt politics and corrupt personal morality.

Thus, Pope shows that it is the moral duty of any good man to grind such creatures under their foot. This is what he does through his satires. Pope’s aim in The Epistle is not merely to show off his prowess as a skillful satirist but to show what is good, and that it is still possible in a corrupt world. A world where such creatures as Sporus and Bufo can prosper is a world where values have been thoroughly distorted. This leads to the distortion and ‘diseased condition’ of everything else in society, including Art.

To contrast with these characters that Pope has been excoriating, he holds up the values of such characters as Arbuthnot  and his own parents. Their simple, moralistic and unpretentious characters are a testament to the fact that, despite all the ugliness in society, goodness is still possible and does exist. The poet celebrates the ‘spotless’ goodness of Arbuthnot. According to a critic, The Epistle shows, “that what is truly human is redeemable and is well worth the cost of redemption”. As Pope himself says, he is seeking “Virtue’s better end”. He bears the satirists burden of moral responsibility by striving to expose society’s evils and showing a better way.

In the Rape of the Lock, Pope’s aims are much gentler and less vituperative. It is more in the vein of Horatian satire. Here, his objective is not to attack but to laugh, by pointing out the follies and vices of fashionable upper-class London society. As Lowell stated, “Pope is the poet of society”. His scope is not confined to one particular class; his interest was in the whole spectrum of society. In the Rape, he employs the mock-epic genre to inflate the subject matter, thereby showing it for what it really is –insignificant trivialities.

In The Rape, Pope mocks the fuss made about petty things such as the breaching of decorum. The poem was based on a real incident involving the Petre and Fermor families. That Pope was successful in ‘laughing the families together’ proves that he had made his point regarding the situation, pointing out that the situation was too silly and trivial for serious consideration.

Another criticism in the poem is on the idleness and vanity of the upper classes. These people did nothing, their only concerns, as outlined in the poem, are balls, gossip, flirting, fashions etc..  They could indeed be called parasites in society. The men are depicted as foppish and stupid, and positively non-masculine. In the battle of the final Canto, the men merely faint and the Baron’s only heroic action is to sneeze. The women are vain and care more for their reputation and appearance than about their morality. Pope uses Clarissa as a mouthpiece to inject some common sense into the situation. She says that beauty is ephemeral and that women should worry more about good qualities in character. Belinda worries not about her lost curl but that the ‘ravisher’ might display the locks in public and so hurt her reputation. She would not have minded much if he had stolen, “Hairs less in sight, or any hairs but these!”

By using the mock-heroic mode of writing, Pope shows us that, unlike the heroic days of the past where those such as Achilles, Agamemnon and Aeneid thrived, now the ideals and values of society have fallen so much that the Rape of the Lock is the only sort of ‘epical’ situation that occurs now. The battles raged is Ombre, the muse is Carryll, the great sea voyage is a glide up the Thames, the heroic action is the theft of a lock. Pope succinctly shows the trite values and petty concerns of contemporary society by implied comparison with epics of the olden days. Samuel Johnson called this, ‘The most attractive of all ludicrous compositions’. Not only is it attractive, but it is also instructive, without being moralizing or didactic.

In the final analysis, Pope was a poet of his times and he believed that a good poet had the moral responsibility of educating society regarding its evils and vices. In his works he took this responsibility seriously, strenuously pinpoints these wrongs and hoped for a better, improved society.

Q: What particular aspects of London society does Pope satirize and what techniques does he use to do so? Does he offer any kind of corrective vision along with his critical commentary?

The Rape of the Lock is a satire on the upper classes of London society. Pope’s subject matter arises from real life events – the falling out that arose between the two noble families, the Petres and the Fermors, erupting over a trivial incident when Lord Petre cut of a lock of Arabella Fermor’s hair. John Carryll requested Pope to write something on the incident, so as to ‘laugh the families’ back together. Pope accomplished this mission, producing a masterpiece that exposes the follies and vices of the gentry while indirectly showing us a corrective vision. The question consists of three parts:

1. The aspects of London life that is satirized in the poem

2. The techniques used for this purpose

3. Whether the poem contains a corrective vision

I propose to answer the question following the given order.

The central theme of the poem is the fuss that the gentry make over trifling matters. In the poem, it is the breach of decorum. The Augustan age was known for ‘decorum’, and great value was place on manners, values and balance. This was a major tenet of the age. The baron in the poem oversteps this line by snipping off Belinda’s lock. She takes umbrage at this act and this results in the battle between the lords and ladies. Pope shows the importance of being able to laugh off trifles rather than making the trifle the cause of conflicts. He shows how silly it is that ‘mighty contests rise from trivial things’. We cannot help but laugh along with Pope at this ludicrous situation.

Another aspect of society that he touches upon and satirizes is human vanity and the importance placed on external appearance. Belinda’s preparation at her dressing table is rendered as a religious sacrament. She is the priestess and the image in her mirror is the Goddess she serves. Then, Pope says ‘Awful Beauty put on all its arms’ in a dramatic description of her adorning herself. Pope suggests that the general tendency to worship beauty amounts to a kind of sacrilege. Pope himself was heavily criticized for his personal appearance – he was only a little over 4 feet tall, hunchbacked and stooped. It’s no wonder that he points out how petty it was to worship beauty.

Using Clarissa as the voice of reason, he shows that men worship female beauty without placing due importance on morals and character. Pope says that ‘Frail beauty must decay’. He dissuades people from placing too much importance on external beauty as it is ephemeral in nature. Belinda cares more for her outward appearance as is clear from her actions throughout the poem.

Pope also satirizes the idleness and the ignorance of the nobility of his time. He depicts them as only interested in trivial matters. Their gossip is confined to the insular world of aristocratic life, such as an Indian screen. The game of Ombre is cleverly used to laugh at their frivolity; Ombre is an excuse for flirting and gambling, but Pope elevates it to the scale of an epic battle, showing that this is the only way the aristocratic youth of modern times can achieve heroic fame. The Baron and the other men are portrayed as vain fops, without true manly qualities. Their sole world revolves around the petty interests of court. The ladies only want attention from the men while ‘playing hard to get’ to use the modern phrase.

Another theme in the poem is the expectations that society has of women. Women had to be demur, perfect and chaste. They had to attract a suitable husband but they could not lose their reputation or their chastity – such a loss would be unacceptable in society. Thus, women had to paradoxically attract and repel men simultaneously. Pope depicts this double standard through Belinda’s hair which attracts male admiration, and through her closely guarded petticoat which is a barrier. Belinda’s narrative allows Pope an opportunity to explore female sexuality of his times.

Finally, Pope depicts his anxieties concerning religious piety and the loss of morals. Pope himself was a strong Catholic and suffered much due to this, at a time when England was hostile to Catholics. In The Rape, he shows that society has embraced other objects of worship rather than God. We have a good instance of this in Belinda’s toilette where she seems to worship her own image and the billet-deaux is equated to a Bible in importance. Later on, in Canto II, the Baron is shown as building an altar to Love and prostrating himself at it. Belinda also wears a cross on her ‘white breast’ which ‘Jews might kiss or infidels adore’. It is ambiguous whether they will kiss and adore the cross or the breast. Pope purposely leaves this out.

In this way, pope was able to comment on the laxity towards religion and morality that was increasing in his day. These were the aspects of London life that he criticizes. Let us now examine the techniques that Pope employs in order to satirize the particular aspects of London society.

The main device is the use of the ‘mock epic’ genre. The Augustans were so called because they imitated the original Augustan writers such as Ovid, Virgil and Horace. Pope’s Rape of the Lock is modeled upon Virgil’s Aeneid. While the latter is an actual epic of heroic proportions, The Rape of the Lock is  merely a parody or a ‘pastiche’. The aim is to show the insignificance of the incidents by elevating it to the level of an epic thereby showing to be what they actually are. The mock epic as mentioned above, is thus a burlesque of the classical epic. Pope uses the same convention as the classical epic, but in a satirical manner. For example, a common epic convention was to invoke the muse: one of the nine goddess sisters of mythology. In the poem, Pope invokes his friend Caryll. Other epic conventions are descriptions of soldiers preparing for battle (implied in Belinda’s preparation for the ball), a description of heroic deeds (the game of Ombre), an account of a great sea voyage (Belinda’s journey up the Thames) and so on. Pope, thus, establishes an ironic contrast between the structure and the content of the poem.

To mock the epic and emphase the trifling nature of the subject Pope uses the heroic couplet. The heroic couplet is an artificial, formal and restrictive form of writing, and in a way, it reflects the society it describes. Pope highlights the satire by setting up a heroic tone and undercutting it with a silly rhyme.

A slew of other literary devices are used such as anaphora (He saw, he wish’d, and to the Prize aspire’d), hyperbole (Ope’d the eyes that must eclipse the day), zeugma (Lose her heart or necklace at a ball) and so forth. All these make the work rich and dazzling with wit.

Finally, in speaking of his corrective vision, it can be argued that while he obliquely puts forth his opinion, Pope does not enforce his views upon the reader. He only exposes and illuminates, leaving the reader to think for himself. By exposing the follies and vices of his society, Pope shows what is wrong with it and therein exists his corrective vision. He is not vituperative or harsh, merely gently satirical. The poem exposes the ills of the Augustan society that Pope recognized. He is ironically laughing at human nature. When we read the Rape of the Lock, we can agree with Samuel Johnson that, ‘It is a masterpiece of delicate fancy.”